Positive error orientation as a promoter of the learning process in organizations
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Abstract
Objective: through the recognition of how important a procedural approach is to the study of individual learning from errors, in this article, we propose and test a model of orientation to individual learning from one’s own error. Methods: by means of a survey questionnaire involving 298 Brazilian workers, we analyzed the data using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Results: we contribute to academic knowledge, first, by modeling and empirically identifying the relationships of positive influence between positive error orientation and error detection, and between error correction and individual learning from error; and second, by the identification of the significant practical importance of positive error orientation for error detection. Conclusions: we point out implications for investigations concerned with measuring more accurately the individual positive error orientation phenomenon, as well as those that seek to deepen the understanding of the influence of the organizational context on the direction of individual error orientation. As implications for managerial practice, we highlight positive error orientation as a promoter of learning in individuals, which means that managers should include, in the training programs, learning activities about situations of error in the workplace.
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Rodrigues, H. G., & Bido, D. de S. (2023). Positive error orientation as a promoter of the learning process in organizations. Brazilian Administration Review, 20(3), e230019. https://doi.org/10.1590/1807-7692bar2023230019
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Research Articles
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References
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Bauer, J., & Mulder, R. H. (2007). Modelling learning from errors in daily work. Learning in Health and Social Care, 6(3), 121-133. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-6861.2007.00150.x
Bledow, R., Frese, M., Anderson, N., Erez, M., & Farr, J. (2009). A dialectic perspective on innovation: Conflicting demands, multiple pathways, and ambidexterity. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 2(3), 305-337. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1111/j.1754-9434.2009.01154.x
Cannon, M. D., & Edmondson, A. C. (2001). Confronting failure: Antecedents and consequences of shared beliefs about failure in organizational work groups. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22(2), 161-177. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3649589
Cannon, M. D., & Edmondson, A. C. (2005). Failing to learn and learning to fail (intelligently): How great organizations put failure to work to innovate and improve. Long Range Planning, 38(3), 299-319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2005.04.005
Carter, M., & Beier, M. E. (2010). The effectiveness of error management training with working-aged adults. Personnel Psychology, 63(3), 641-675. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01183.x
Casey, T. W., Riseborough, K. M., & Krauss, A. D. (2015). Do you see what I see? Effects of national culture on employees’ safety-related perceptions and behavior. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 78, 173-184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2015.03.010
Chughtai, A. A., & Buckley, F. (2010). Assessing the effects of organizational identification on in-role job performance and learning behaviour: The mediating role of learning goal orientation. Personnel Review, 39(2), 242-258. https://doi.org/10.1108/00483481011017444
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Psychology Press.
Coltman, T., Devinney, T. M., Midgley, D. F., & Venaik, S. (2008). Formative versus reflective measurement models: Two applications of formative measurement. Journal of Business Research, 61(12), 1250-1262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.01.013
Dahlin, K. B., Chuang, Y. T., & Roulet, T. J. (2018). Opportunity, motivation, and ability to learn from failures and errors: Review, synthesis, and ways to move forward. Academy of Management Annals, 12(1), 252-277. https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2016.0049
Dyck, C. van., Frese, M., Baer, M., & Sonnentag, S. (2005). Organizational error management culture and its impact on performance: A two-study replication. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1228-1240. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1228
Edmondson, A. (1996). Learning from mistakes is easier said than done: Group and organizational influences on the detection and correction of human error. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 32(1), 5-28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886396321001
Edmondson, A. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350-383. https://doi.org/10.2307/2666999
Frese, M., & Keith, N. (2015). Action errors, error management, and learning in organizations. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 661-687. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015205
Gartmeier, M., Bauer, J., Gruber, H., & Heid, H. (2008). Negative knowledge: Understanding professional learning and expertise. Vocations and Learning, 1, 87-103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-008-9006-1
Goodman, P. S., Ramanujam, R., Carrol, J. S., Edmondson, A. C., Hofmann, D. A., & Sutcliffe, M. (2011). Organizational errors: Directions for future research. Research in Organizational Behavior, 31, 151-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2011.09.003
Grohnert, T., Meuwissen, R. H. G., & Gijselaers, W. H. (2017). Valuing errors for learning: Espouse or enact? Journal of Workplace Learning, 29(5), 394-408. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWL-11-2016-0102
Gronewold, U., & Donle, M. (2011). Organizational error climate and auditors’ predispositions toward handling errors. Behavioral Research in Accounting, 23(2), 69-92. https://doi.org/10.2308/bria-10061
Hair, J. F., Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Prentice Hall.
Hair, J. F., Jr., Howard, M. C., & Nitzl, C. (2020). Assessing measurement model quality in PLS-SEM using confirmatory composite analysis. Journal of Business Research, 109, 101-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.11.069
Hair, J. F., Jr., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2013). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (1st ed.). Sage Publications.
Hair, J. F., Jr., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2016). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
Harteis, C., Bauer, J., & Gruber, H. (2008). The culture of learning from mistakes: How employees handle mistakes in everyday work. International Journal of Educational Research, 47(4), 223-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2008.07.003
Henseler, J. (2021). Composite-based structural equation modeling: Analyzing latent and emergent variables. The Guilford Press.
Hetzner, S., Gartmeier, M., Heid, H., & Gruber, H. (2011). Error orientation and reflection at work. Vocations and Learning, 4, 25-39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-010-9047-0
Homsma, G. J., Dyck, C. van., De Gilder, D., Koopman, P. L., & Elfring, T. (2009). Learning from error: The influence of error incident characteristics. Journal of Business Research, 62(1), 115-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.12.003
Horvath, D., Klamar, A., Keith, N., & Frese, M. (2021). Are all errors created equal? Testing the effect of error characteristics on learning from errors in three countries. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 30(1), 110-124. https://doi.org/10.2308/bria-1006110.1080/1359432X.2020.1839420
Ibrion, M., Paltrinieri, N., & Nejad, A. R. (2021). Learning from failures in cruise ship industry: The blackout of Viking Sky in Hustadvika Norway. Engineering Failure Analysis, 125, 105355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2021.105355
Jarvis, C. B., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, P. M. (2003). A critical review of construct indicators and measurement model misspecification in marketing and consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(2), 199-218. https://doi.org/10.1086/376806
KC, D., Staats, B. R., & Gino, F. (2013). Learning from my success and from others’ failure: Evidence from minimally invasive cardiac surgery. Management Science, 59(11), 2413-2634. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2013.1720
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.
Lee, K-H., Hyun, S. S., Park, H, & Kim, K. (2020). The antecedents and consequences of psychological safety in airline firms: Focusing on high-quality interpersonal relationships. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(7), 2187. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072187
Lei, Z., Naveh, E., & Novikov, Z. (2016). Errors in organizations: An integrative review via level of analysis, temporal dynamism, and priority lenses. Journal of Management, 42(5), 1315-1343. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316633745
Leicher, V., & Mulder, R. H. (2016). Individual and contextual factors influencing engagement in learning activities after errors at work: A replication study in a German Retail Bank. Journal of Workplace Learning, 28(2), 66-80. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWL-03-2015-0022
Love, P. E., & Josephson, P.-E. (2004). Role of error-recovery process in projects. Journal of Management in Engineering, 20(2), 70-79. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0742-597X(2004)20:2(70)
Ohlsson, S. (1996). Learning from performance errors. Psychological Review, 103(2), 241-262. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.241
Putz, D., Schilling, J., Kluge, A., & Stangenberg, C. (2013). Measuring organizational learning from errors: Development and validation of an integrated model and questionnaire. Management Learning, 44(5), 511-536. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350507612444391
Rodrigues, H. G., & Bido, D. S. (2019). O processo de aprendizagem individual a partir do erro vivenciado por gestores de empresas de base tecnológica. Contextus – Revista Contemporânea de Economia e Gestão, 17(3), 210-237. https://doi.org/10.19094/contextus.v17i3.42748
Rybowiak, V., Garst, H., Frese, M., & Batinic, B. (1999). Error orientation questionnaire (EOQ): Reliability, validity, and different language equivalence. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20(4), 527-547. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199907)20:4%3C527::AID-JOB886%3E3.0.CO;2-G
Schell, K. L., & Conte, J. M. (2008). Associations among polychronicity, goal orientation, and error orientation. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(1), 288-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.08.009
Schwartz, S. (2016). First round of preparation, cleaning and recoding. European Social Survey Education Net. https://web.archive.org/web/20220302210707/http://essedunet.nsd.uib.no/cms/topics/1/4/2.html
Seckler, C., Gronewold, U., & Reihlen, M. (2017). An error management perspective on audit quality: Toward a multi-level model. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 62, 21-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2017.08.004
Sellen, A. J. (1994). Detection of everyday errors. Applied Psychology, 43(4), 475-498. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1994.tb00841.x
Tjosvold, D., Yu, Z., & Hui, C. (2004). Team learning from mistakes: The contribution of cooperative goals and problem-solving. Journal of Management Studies, 41(7), 1223-1245. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2004.00473.x
Tucker, A., & Edmondson, A. C. (2003). Why hospitals don’t learn from failures: Organizational and psychological dynamics that inhibit system change. California Management Review, 45(2), 55-72. https://doi.org/10.2307/41166165
Ye, Q., Wang, D., & Li, X. (2018). Promoting employees’ learning from errors by inclusive leadership: Do positive mood and gender matter? Baltic Journal of Management, 13(1), 125-142. https://doi.org/10.1108/BJM-05-2017-0160
Ye, Q., Wang, D., & Li, X. (2019). Inclusive leadership and employees’ learning from errors: A moderated mediation model. Australian Journal of Management, 44(3), 462-481. https://doi.org/10.1177/0312896218805796
Zhao, B. (2011). Learning from errors: The role of context, emotion, and personality. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32(3), 435-463. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.696
Zhao, B., & Olivera, F. (2006). Error reporting in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 1012-1030. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22528167
Zhao, B., Seifried, J., & Sieweke, J. (2018). Trainers’ responses to errors matter in trainees’ learning from errors: Evidence from two studies. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 33(3), 279-296. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-10-2017-0364
Zhou, Q., Mao, J-Y., & Tang, F. (2020). Don’t be afraid to fail because you can learn from it! How intrinsic motivation leads to enhanced self-development and benevolent leadership as a boundary condition. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 699. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00699
Arenas, A., Tabernero, C., & Briones, E. (2006). Effects of goal orientation, error orientation and self-efficacy on performance in an uncertain situation. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 34(5), 569-586. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2006.34.5.569
Bauer, J., & Mulder, R. H. (2007). Modelling learning from errors in daily work. Learning in Health and Social Care, 6(3), 121-133. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-6861.2007.00150.x
Bledow, R., Frese, M., Anderson, N., Erez, M., & Farr, J. (2009). A dialectic perspective on innovation: Conflicting demands, multiple pathways, and ambidexterity. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 2(3), 305-337. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1111/j.1754-9434.2009.01154.x
Cannon, M. D., & Edmondson, A. C. (2001). Confronting failure: Antecedents and consequences of shared beliefs about failure in organizational work groups. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22(2), 161-177. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3649589
Cannon, M. D., & Edmondson, A. C. (2005). Failing to learn and learning to fail (intelligently): How great organizations put failure to work to innovate and improve. Long Range Planning, 38(3), 299-319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2005.04.005
Carter, M., & Beier, M. E. (2010). The effectiveness of error management training with working-aged adults. Personnel Psychology, 63(3), 641-675. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01183.x
Casey, T. W., Riseborough, K. M., & Krauss, A. D. (2015). Do you see what I see? Effects of national culture on employees’ safety-related perceptions and behavior. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 78, 173-184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2015.03.010
Chughtai, A. A., & Buckley, F. (2010). Assessing the effects of organizational identification on in-role job performance and learning behaviour: The mediating role of learning goal orientation. Personnel Review, 39(2), 242-258. https://doi.org/10.1108/00483481011017444
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Psychology Press.
Coltman, T., Devinney, T. M., Midgley, D. F., & Venaik, S. (2008). Formative versus reflective measurement models: Two applications of formative measurement. Journal of Business Research, 61(12), 1250-1262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.01.013
Dahlin, K. B., Chuang, Y. T., & Roulet, T. J. (2018). Opportunity, motivation, and ability to learn from failures and errors: Review, synthesis, and ways to move forward. Academy of Management Annals, 12(1), 252-277. https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2016.0049
Dyck, C. van., Frese, M., Baer, M., & Sonnentag, S. (2005). Organizational error management culture and its impact on performance: A two-study replication. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1228-1240. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1228
Edmondson, A. (1996). Learning from mistakes is easier said than done: Group and organizational influences on the detection and correction of human error. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 32(1), 5-28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886396321001
Edmondson, A. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350-383. https://doi.org/10.2307/2666999
Frese, M., & Keith, N. (2015). Action errors, error management, and learning in organizations. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 661-687. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015205
Gartmeier, M., Bauer, J., Gruber, H., & Heid, H. (2008). Negative knowledge: Understanding professional learning and expertise. Vocations and Learning, 1, 87-103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-008-9006-1
Goodman, P. S., Ramanujam, R., Carrol, J. S., Edmondson, A. C., Hofmann, D. A., & Sutcliffe, M. (2011). Organizational errors: Directions for future research. Research in Organizational Behavior, 31, 151-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2011.09.003
Grohnert, T., Meuwissen, R. H. G., & Gijselaers, W. H. (2017). Valuing errors for learning: Espouse or enact? Journal of Workplace Learning, 29(5), 394-408. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWL-11-2016-0102
Gronewold, U., & Donle, M. (2011). Organizational error climate and auditors’ predispositions toward handling errors. Behavioral Research in Accounting, 23(2), 69-92. https://doi.org/10.2308/bria-10061
Hair, J. F., Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Prentice Hall.
Hair, J. F., Jr., Howard, M. C., & Nitzl, C. (2020). Assessing measurement model quality in PLS-SEM using confirmatory composite analysis. Journal of Business Research, 109, 101-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.11.069
Hair, J. F., Jr., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2013). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (1st ed.). Sage Publications.
Hair, J. F., Jr., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2016). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
Harteis, C., Bauer, J., & Gruber, H. (2008). The culture of learning from mistakes: How employees handle mistakes in everyday work. International Journal of Educational Research, 47(4), 223-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2008.07.003
Henseler, J. (2021). Composite-based structural equation modeling: Analyzing latent and emergent variables. The Guilford Press.
Hetzner, S., Gartmeier, M., Heid, H., & Gruber, H. (2011). Error orientation and reflection at work. Vocations and Learning, 4, 25-39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-010-9047-0
Homsma, G. J., Dyck, C. van., De Gilder, D., Koopman, P. L., & Elfring, T. (2009). Learning from error: The influence of error incident characteristics. Journal of Business Research, 62(1), 115-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.12.003
Horvath, D., Klamar, A., Keith, N., & Frese, M. (2021). Are all errors created equal? Testing the effect of error characteristics on learning from errors in three countries. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 30(1), 110-124. https://doi.org/10.2308/bria-1006110.1080/1359432X.2020.1839420
Ibrion, M., Paltrinieri, N., & Nejad, A. R. (2021). Learning from failures in cruise ship industry: The blackout of Viking Sky in Hustadvika Norway. Engineering Failure Analysis, 125, 105355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2021.105355
Jarvis, C. B., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, P. M. (2003). A critical review of construct indicators and measurement model misspecification in marketing and consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(2), 199-218. https://doi.org/10.1086/376806
KC, D., Staats, B. R., & Gino, F. (2013). Learning from my success and from others’ failure: Evidence from minimally invasive cardiac surgery. Management Science, 59(11), 2413-2634. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2013.1720
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.
Lee, K-H., Hyun, S. S., Park, H, & Kim, K. (2020). The antecedents and consequences of psychological safety in airline firms: Focusing on high-quality interpersonal relationships. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(7), 2187. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072187
Lei, Z., Naveh, E., & Novikov, Z. (2016). Errors in organizations: An integrative review via level of analysis, temporal dynamism, and priority lenses. Journal of Management, 42(5), 1315-1343. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316633745
Leicher, V., & Mulder, R. H. (2016). Individual and contextual factors influencing engagement in learning activities after errors at work: A replication study in a German Retail Bank. Journal of Workplace Learning, 28(2), 66-80. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWL-03-2015-0022
Love, P. E., & Josephson, P.-E. (2004). Role of error-recovery process in projects. Journal of Management in Engineering, 20(2), 70-79. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0742-597X(2004)20:2(70)
Ohlsson, S. (1996). Learning from performance errors. Psychological Review, 103(2), 241-262. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.241
Putz, D., Schilling, J., Kluge, A., & Stangenberg, C. (2013). Measuring organizational learning from errors: Development and validation of an integrated model and questionnaire. Management Learning, 44(5), 511-536. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350507612444391
Rodrigues, H. G., & Bido, D. S. (2019). O processo de aprendizagem individual a partir do erro vivenciado por gestores de empresas de base tecnológica. Contextus – Revista Contemporânea de Economia e Gestão, 17(3), 210-237. https://doi.org/10.19094/contextus.v17i3.42748
Rybowiak, V., Garst, H., Frese, M., & Batinic, B. (1999). Error orientation questionnaire (EOQ): Reliability, validity, and different language equivalence. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20(4), 527-547. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199907)20:4%3C527::AID-JOB886%3E3.0.CO;2-G
Schell, K. L., & Conte, J. M. (2008). Associations among polychronicity, goal orientation, and error orientation. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(1), 288-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.08.009
Schwartz, S. (2016). First round of preparation, cleaning and recoding. European Social Survey Education Net. https://web.archive.org/web/20220302210707/http://essedunet.nsd.uib.no/cms/topics/1/4/2.html
Seckler, C., Gronewold, U., & Reihlen, M. (2017). An error management perspective on audit quality: Toward a multi-level model. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 62, 21-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2017.08.004
Sellen, A. J. (1994). Detection of everyday errors. Applied Psychology, 43(4), 475-498. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1994.tb00841.x
Tjosvold, D., Yu, Z., & Hui, C. (2004). Team learning from mistakes: The contribution of cooperative goals and problem-solving. Journal of Management Studies, 41(7), 1223-1245. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2004.00473.x
Tucker, A., & Edmondson, A. C. (2003). Why hospitals don’t learn from failures: Organizational and psychological dynamics that inhibit system change. California Management Review, 45(2), 55-72. https://doi.org/10.2307/41166165
Ye, Q., Wang, D., & Li, X. (2018). Promoting employees’ learning from errors by inclusive leadership: Do positive mood and gender matter? Baltic Journal of Management, 13(1), 125-142. https://doi.org/10.1108/BJM-05-2017-0160
Ye, Q., Wang, D., & Li, X. (2019). Inclusive leadership and employees’ learning from errors: A moderated mediation model. Australian Journal of Management, 44(3), 462-481. https://doi.org/10.1177/0312896218805796
Zhao, B. (2011). Learning from errors: The role of context, emotion, and personality. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32(3), 435-463. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.696
Zhao, B., & Olivera, F. (2006). Error reporting in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 1012-1030. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22528167
Zhao, B., Seifried, J., & Sieweke, J. (2018). Trainers’ responses to errors matter in trainees’ learning from errors: Evidence from two studies. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 33(3), 279-296. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-10-2017-0364
Zhou, Q., Mao, J-Y., & Tang, F. (2020). Don’t be afraid to fail because you can learn from it! How intrinsic motivation leads to enhanced self-development and benevolent leadership as a boundary condition. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 699. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00699