Public Servants’ Voluntary Withdrawal Intention in the Careers of Federal Direct Public Administration in Brazil

Main Article Content

Ana Cláudia Alves de Medeiros Silva
Elaine Rabelo Neiva

Abstract

Objective: Voluntary withdrawal intention (VWI) is the idealized process of leaving an organization. VWI can lead to a loss of institutional memory, higher costs for personnel replacement, and an overload on remaining staff. Drawing on unfolding and embeddedness theories, this study identifies a new mechanism linking negative shocks to turnover intention. Methods: The study supports the idea that organizational cynicism and professional achievement mediate the relationship between VWI and organizational change. Structural equation modeling was used with data from 378 federal public servants in Brazil. Results: The results indicate that organizational cynicism and professional achievement play a role in this relationship. The model explains 70.70% of the variance in VWI. Conclusions: These findings have implications for research on employee turnover intentions and people management, improving our understanding of predictors and
relationships. The study also explores both theoretical and practical implications, which are particularly important due to the limited research in the Brazilian federal public sector.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Article Details

How to Cite
Silva, A. C. A. de M., & Neiva, E. R. (2024). Public Servants’ Voluntary Withdrawal Intention in the Careers of Federal Direct Public Administration in Brazil. Brazilian Administration Review, 21(2), e230060. https://doi.org/10.1590/1807-7692bar2024230060
Section
Research Articles

References

Abubakar, A. M., Namin, B. H., Harazneh, I., Arasli, H., & Tunç, T. (2017). Does gender moderates the relationship between favoritism/nepotism, supervisor incivility, cynicism and workplace withdrawal: A neural network and SEM approach. Tourism Management Perspectives, 23, 129–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.06.001
Aburumman, O., Salleh, A., Omar, K., & Abadi, M. (2020). The impact of human resource management practices and career satisfaction on employee’s turnover intention. Management Science Letters, 10(3), 641–652. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.msl.2019.9.015
Agapito, P. R., Polizzi, A. Filho, & Siqueira, M. M. M. (2015). Bem-estar no trabalho e percepção de sucesso na carreira como antecedentes de intenção de rotatividade [Well-being at work and perception of career success as antecedent for turnover intention]. RAM. Revista de Administração Mackenzie, 16(6), 71–93. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-69712015/administracao.v16n6p71-93
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1977). Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. Psychological Bulletin, 84(5), 888–918. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.84.5.888
Akoensi, T. D., & Amankwah-Amoah, J. (2023). Cynicism toward change and career stage: An exploration of work environment and organizational based characteristics among prison officers in Ghana. International Criminology, 3(1), 63–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43576-023-00084-3
Andersson, L. M. (1996). Employee cynicism: An examination using a contract violation framework. Human Relations, 49(11), 1395–1418. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872679604901102
Andersson, L. M., & Bateman, T. S. (1997). Cynicism in the workplace: Some causes and effects. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18(5), 449–469. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199709)18:5<449::AID-JOB808>3.0.CO;2-O
Arslan, M. (2018). Organizational cynicism and employee performance: Moderating role of employee engagement. Journal of Global Responsibility, 9(4), 415–431. https://doi.org/10.1108/JGR-05-2018-0014
Aslam, U., Ilyas, M., Imran, M. K., & Rahman, U. U. (2016). Detrimental effects of cynicism on organizational change. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 29(4), 580–598. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-12-2014-0231
Ato, M., & Vallejo, G. (2011). Los efectos de terceras variables en la investigación psicológica. Anales de Psicología, 27(2), 550–561. https://revistas.um.es/analesps/article/view/123201
Babalola, M. T., Stouten, J., & Euwema, M. (2016). Frequent change and turnover intention: The moderating role of ethical leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 134(2), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2433-z
Bartunek, J. M., & Woodman, R. W. (2015). Beyond Lewin: Toward a temporal approximation of organization development and change. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2(1), 157–182. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111353
Bashir, S., & Nasir, M. (2013). Breach of psychological contract, organizational cynicism and union commitment: A study of hospitality industry in Pakistan. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 34, 61–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2013.02.004
Beer, M., & Nohria, N. (2000). Cracking the code of change. Harvard Business School Press.
Bordia, P., Restubog, S. L. D., Jimmieson, N. L., & Irmer, B. E. (2011). Haunted by the past: Effects of poor change management history on employee attitudes and turnover. Group & Organization Management, 36(2), 191–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601110392990
Bouckenooghe, D. (2010). Positioning change recipients’ attitudes toward change in the organizational change literature. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 46(4), 500–531. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886310367944
Brandes, P., Dean, J. W., & Dharwadkar, R. (1998). Organizational cynicism. Academy of Management Review, 23(2), 341–352. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1998.533230
Brandes, P., Dean, J. W., & Dharwadkar, R. (1999). Does organizational cynicism matter? Employee and supervisor perspectives on work outcomes (pp. 150-153). Eastern Academy of Management Proceedings.
Brown, M., Kulik, C. T., Cregan, C., & Metz, I. (2017). Understanding the change-cynicism cycle: The role of HR. Human Resource Management, 56(1), 5–24. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21708
Burke, R. J., & Mikkelsen, A. (2005). Career stage and police cynicism. Psychological Reports, 96(3_suppl), 989–992. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.96.3c.989-992
Carpenter, N. C., & Berry, C. M. (2017). Are counterproductive work behavior and withdrawal empirically distinct? A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Management, 43(3), 834–863. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314544743
Chang, H.-Y., Chu, T.-L., Liao, Y.-N., Chang, Y.-T., & Teng, C.-I. (2019). How do career barriers and supports impact nurse professional commitment and professional turnover intention? Journal of Nursing Management, 27(2), 347–356. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12674
Chênevert, D., Kilroy, S., Bosak, J., Chenevert, D., Kilroy, S., Bosak, J., Chênevert, D., Kilroy, S., Bosak, J., Chenevert, D., Kilroy, S., & Bosak, J. (2019). The role of change readiness and colleague support in the role stressors and withdrawal behaviors relationship among health care employees. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 32(2), 208–223. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-06-2018-0148
Chiaburu, D. S., Peng, A. C., Oh, I.-S., Banks, G. C., & Lomeli, L. C. (2013). Antecedents and consequences of employee organizational cynicism: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(2), 181–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.03.007
Choi, M. (2011). Employees’ attitudes toward organizational change: A literature review. Human Resource Management, 50(4), 479–500. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.20434
Devos, G., Buelens, M., & Bouckenooghe, D. (2007). Contribution of content, context, and process to understanding openness to organizational change: Two experimental simulation studies. The Journal of Social Psychology, 147(6), 607–630. https://doi.org/10.3200/SOCP.147.6.607-630
Diógenes, L. C., Paschoal, T., Neiva, E. R., & Meneses, P. P. M. (2016). Intenção de rotatividade e percepção de suporte organizacional em um órgão público federal [Turnover intention and organizational support in a federal governmental organization]. Revista do Serviço Público, 67(2), 147–172. https://doi.org/10.21874/rsp.v67i2.655
Fauzan, R. (2019). Upgrading at work: Employee disposition and cynicism about organizational changes. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 28(3), 677–697. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOA-07-2019-1826
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312
Franco, K. S., Neiva, E. R., Nery, V. D. F., & Demo, G. (2016). A relação entre atributos, atitudes e bem-estar na mudança organizacional [The relationship between context, attitudes and well-being in organizational change]. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 32(spe), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-3772e32ne219
Freitas, C. P. P. de, Damásio, B. F., & Koller, S. H. (2016). Escala de Autoeficácia Ocupacional em Intervenções com Populações Vulneráveis [Occupational Self-Efficacy in Interventions for Populations in Social Vulnerability Scale]. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 32(4). https://doi.org/10.1590/0102.3772e324224
Grama, B., & Todericiu, R. (2016). Change, resistance to change and organizational cynicism. Studies in Business and Economics, 11(3), 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1515/sbe-2016-0034
Guzeller, C. O., & Celiker, N. (2019). Examining the relationship between organizational commitment and turnover intention via a meta-analysis. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 14(1), 102–120. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCTHR-05-2019-0094
Gyensare, M. A., Kumedzro, L. E., Sanda, A., & Boso, N. (2017). Linking transformational leadership to turnover intention in the public sector: The influences of engagement, affective commitment and psychological climate. African Journal of Economic and Management Studies, 8(3), 314–337. https://doi.org/10.1108/AJEMS-07-2016-0099
Hair, J. F. (2019). Multivariate data analysis (8. ed.). Cengage.
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2. ed). Guilford Press.
Heggeness, M. L. (2020). Estimating the immediate impact of the COVID-19 shock on parental attachment to the labor market and the double bind of mothers. Review of Economics of the Household, 18(4), 1053–1078. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-020-09514-x
Hom, P. W., & Griffeth, R. W. (1991). Structural equations modeling test of a turnover theory: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(3), 350–366. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.76.3.350
Hom, P. W., Lee, T. W., Shaw, J. D., & Hausknecht, J. P. (2017). One hundred years of employee turnover theory and research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(3), 530–545. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000103
Hom, P. W., Mitchell, T. R., Lee, T. W., & Griffeth, R. W. (2012). Reviewing employee turnover: Focusing on proximal withdrawal states and an expanded criterion. Psychological Bulletin, 138(5), 831–858. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027983
Kline, R. B. (2016). Methodology in the social sciences. Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.
Koçoglu, M. (2014). Cynicism as a mediator of relations between job stress and work alienation: A study from a developing country—Turkey. Global Business & Management Research: An International Journal, 6(1), 24–36.
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2011). Credibility: How Leaders Gain and Lose It Why People Demand It (1. ed). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118983867
Lambert, E. G., & Hogan, N. (2009). The importance of job satisfaction and organizational commitment in shaping turnover intent—A test of a causal model. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(3), 1624–1635. https://doi.org/10.1080/03643100902988141
Lapointe, É., Vandenberghe, C., Mignonac, K., Panaccio, A., Schwarz, G., Richebé, N., & Roussel, P. (2019). Development and validation of a commitment to organizational career scale: At the crossroads of individuals’ career aspirations and organizations’ needs. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 92(4), 897–930. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12273
Lee, T. W., Burch, T. C., & Mitchell, T. R. (2014). The Story of Why We Stay: A Review of Job Embeddedness. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 199–216. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091244
Lee, H.-W. (2020). A Career Stage Analysis of the U.S. Federal Employees’ Job Satisfaction and Turnover Intention: A Comprehensive Overview. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 40(4), 717–742. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X19856082
Lin, C.-P. (2019). Modeling corporate citizenship and turnover intention: Social identity and expectancy theories. Review of Managerial Science, 13(4), 823–840. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-017-0275-7
Lind, E. A., & Tyler, T. R. (1988). The Social Psychology of procedural justice. Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2115-4
Lorinkova, N. M., & Perry, S. J. (2017). When is empowerment effective? The role of leader-leader exchange in empowering leadership, cynicism, and time theft. Journal of Management, 43(5), 1631–1654. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314560411
Lotz, R., & Regoli, R. M. (1977). Police cynicism and professionalism. Human Relations, 30(2), 175–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872677703000206
Maes, G., & Van Hootegem, G. (2011). Toward a dynamic description of the attributes of organizational change. Research in Organizational Change and Development, 19, 191–231. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0897-3016(2011)0000019009
Mantler, J., Godin, J., Cameron, S. J., & Horsburgh, M. E. (2015). Cynicism in hospital staff nurses: The effect of intention to leave and job change over time. Journal of Nursing Management, 23(5), 577. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12183
March, J. G., & Simon, H. A. (1958). Organizations. Wiley.
Mardia, K. V. (1970). Measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis with applications. Biometrika, 57(3), 519. https://doi.org/10.2307/2334770
Micelotta, E., Lounsbury, M., & Greenwood, R. (2017). Pathways of institutional change: An integrative review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 43(6), 1885–1910. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206317699522
Ministério da Economia. (2019). Relatório de Gestão. ME.
Mirvis, P. H., & Kanter, D. L. (1989). Combatting cynicism in the workplace. National Productivity Review, 8(4), 377–394. https://doi.org/10.1002/npr.4040080406
Mitchell, T. R., & Lee, T. W. (2001). 5. The unfolding model of voluntary turnover and job embeddedness: Foundations for a comprehensive theory of attachment. Research in Organizational Behavior, 23, 189–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-3085(01)23006-8
Mobley, W. H. (1977). Intermediate linkages in the relationship between job satisfaction and employee turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62(2), 237–240. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.62.2.237
Mobley, W. H., Griffeth, R. W., Hand, H. H., & Meglino, B. M. (1979). Review and conceptual analysis of the employee turnover process. Psychological Bulletin, 86(3), 493–522. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.3.493
Munir, Y., Ghafoor, M. M., & Rasli, A. Md. (2016). Exploring the relationship of horizontal violence, organizational cynicism and turnover intention in the context of social exchange theory. International Journal of Human Rights in Healthcare, 9(4), 254–266. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJHRH-08-2016-0014
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus: Statistical analysis with latent variables. User’s guide. Muthén & Muthén.
Naus, F., Van Iterson, A., & Roe, R. (2007). Organizational cynicism: Extending the exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect model of employees’ responses to adverse conditions in the workplace. Human Relations, 60(5), 683–718. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726707079198
Nery, V. F., Franco, K. S., & Neiva, E. R. (2019). Attributes of the Organizational Change and Its Influence on Attitudes Toward Organizational Change and Well-Being at Work: A Longitudinal Study. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 55(4), 477–496. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886319848125
Nery, V. F., & Neiva, E. R. (2015). Variáveis de Contexto e Respostas à Mudança Organizacional: Testando o Papel Mediador das Atitudes [Context variables and responses to organizational change: Testing the mediating role of attitudes]. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 31(2), 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-37722015021968259268
Neves, P. (2012). Organizational cynicism: Spillover effects on supervisor–subordinate relationships and performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(5), 965–976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.06.006
Nguyen, D. T. N., Teo, S. T. T., Pick, D., & Jemai, M. (2018). Cynicism about change, work engagement, and job satisfaction of public sector nurses: Change cynicism and work outcomes of public sector nurses. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 77(2), 172–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8500.12270
Ogunfowora, B., Stackhouse, M., & Oh, W.-Y. (2018). Media Depictions of CEO Ethics and Stakeholder Support of CSR Initiatives: The Mediating Roles of CSR Motive Attributions and Cynicism. Journal of Business Ethics, 150(2), 525–540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3173-z
Oreg, S., Vakola, M., & Armenakis, A. (2011). Change recipients’ reactions to organizational change: A 60-year review of quantitative studies. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 47(4), 461–524. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886310396550
Pasquali, L. (2011). Análise fatorial para pesquisadores. LabPAM.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Pugh, S. D., Skarlicki, D. P., & Passell, B. S. (2003). After the fall: Layoff victims’ trust and cynicism in re‐employment. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76(2), 201–212. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317903765913704
Ramos, L. D., & Neiva, E. R. (2013). Contexto de mudança organizacional: Sua influência sobre a aprendizagem, as redes sociais e as competências aprendidas no trabalho. Anais do XXXVI Encontro da ANPAD, 1–16.
Ramsey, J. (1969). Tests for specification errors in classical linear least-squares regression analysis. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B (Methodological), 31(2), 350–371.
Raza, M. A., Khan, M. M., & Mujtaba, B. G. (2018). The impact of organizational change on employee turnover intention: Does stress play a mediating role? Public Organization Review, 18(3), 313–327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-017-0380-8
Regoli, R., Culbertson, R. G., Crank, J. P., & Powell, J. R. (1990). Career stage and cynicism among police chiefs. Justice Quarterly, 7(3), 593–614. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829000090741
Revelle, W. (2020). Psych: Procedures for psychological, psychometric, and personality research. In: (R package version 2.0.12) [software]. Northwestern University [Software]. https://cran.r-project.org/package=psych
Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2). https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
RStudio Team. (2020). RStudio: Integrated development for R [Software]. RStudio, PBC. http://www.rstudio.com/
Salessi, S., & Omar, A. (2014). Validación de la Escala de Cinismo Organizacional: Un estudio con trabajadores argentinos [Validation of the Organizational Cynicism Scale: A study with Argentinean workers]. Revista de Psicología, 32(2), 357–386. https://doi.org/10.18800/psico.201402.007
Salessi, S., & Omar, A. (2018). Tríada oscura de personalidad, satisfacción laboral y cinismo organizacional: Un modelo estructural [Dark triad of personality, job satisfaction and organizational cynicism: A structural model]. Universitas Psychologica, 17(3), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.upsy17-3.tops
Schmitz, M. A., Froese, F. J., & Bader, A. K. (2018). Organizational cynicism in multinational corporations in China. Asia Pacific Business Review, 24(5), 620–637. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602381.2018.1492203
Seidl, J., Borges-Andrade, J. E., & Neiva, E. R. (2019). Rotatividade: Análise de vinte anos da produção científica brasileira [Turnover: Analyzing twenty years of the Brazilian scientific production]. Revista de Administração FACES Journal, 18(2), 44–64. https://doi.org/10.21714/1984-6975FACES2019V18N2ART6090
Sharma, G. G., & Stol, K.-J. (2020). Exploring onboarding success, organizational fit, and turnover intention of software professionals. Journal of Systems and Software, 159, 110442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2019.110442
Siqueira, M. M. M., Gomide Jr., S., Oliveira, Á. de F., & Filho, A. P. (2014). Intenção de rotatividade [Turnover intention] (pp. 209-2016). In M. M. M. Siqueira (Org.), Novas medidas do comportamento organizacional: Ferramentas de diagnóstico e de gestão. Artmed.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics. Harper Collings College Publishers.
Thundiyil, T. G., Chiaburu, D. S., Oh, I.-S., Banks, G. C., & Peng, A. C. (2015). Cynical about change? A preliminary meta-analysis and future research agenda. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 51(4), 429–450. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886315603122
Tumelero, C., dos Santos, S. A., & Kuniyoshi, M. S. (2016). Sobrevivência de empresas de base tecnológica pós‐incubadas: Estudo sobre a ação empreendedora na mobilização e uso de recursos. REGE - Revista de Gestão, 23(1), 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rege.2014.11.001
Ulmer, J. T. (1992). Occupational socialization and cynicism toward prison administration. The Social Science Journal, 29(4), 423–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/0362-3319(92)90005-3
Valentini, F., & Damásio, B. F. (2016). Variância média extraída e confiabilidade composta: Indicadores de precisão. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 32(2). https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-3772e322225
Vasconcellos, V. C., & Neiva, E. R. (2016). Escala de Expectativas de Carreira na Organização: Desenvolvimento e evidências de validade [Career Expectations in the Organization Scale: Development and validity evidence]. Psico-USF, 21(2), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-82712016210203
Vasconcellos, V. C., & Neiva, E. R. (2017). Antecedentes de expectativas de carreira na organização [Antecedents of career expectations in the organization]. Temas em Psicologia, 25(1), 193–205. https://doi.org/10.9788/TP2017.1-13
Vasconcellos, V. C., & Neiva, E. R. (2019). Efeitos de expectativas de futuro no comprometimento organizacional e intenção de desligamento [Effects of future expectations on organizational commitment and intention to leave]. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 35, e3557. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102.3772e3557
Vem, L. J., Mbasua, Y. A., & Davireng, M. (2019). Sanctification of work and turnover of teachers under insurgency. Journal of Educational Administration, 58(2), 171–186. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-03-2019-0039
Verma, B. K., & Kesari, B. (2020). Does the morale impact on employee turnover intention? An empirical investigation in the Indian steel industry. Global Business Review, 21(6), 1466–1488. https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150919856957
Weller, I., Holtom, B. C., Matiaske, W., & Mellewigt, T. (2009). Level and time effects of recruitment sources on early voluntary turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(5), 1146–1162. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015924
Westerberg, K., Pienaar, J., Nordin, M., Romeo, M., & Yepes-Baldó, M. (2021). Organizational change and commitment: Effects on well-being, turnover intent and quality of care in Spanish and Swedish eldercare. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 42(4), 899–916. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X18815970
Wilhelm, P. G. (1993). Application of distributive justice theory to the CEO pay problem: Recommendations for reform. Journal of Business Ethics, 12(6), 469–482. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01666561
Xie, B., Xin, X., & Bai, G. (2016). Hierarchical plateau and turnover intention of employees at the career establishment stage. Career Development International, 21(5), 518–533. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-04-2015-0063
Yang, C., Chen, Y., Zhao Roy, X., & Mattila, A. S. (2020). Unfolding deconstructive effects of negative shocks on psychological contract violation, organizational cynicism, and turnover intention. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 89, 102591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102591
Zeng, S., Li, X., He, X., & Chen, W. (2020). The role of family in career choices among social workers in China. Journal of Social Service Research, 46(1), 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/01488376.2018.1528490
Zhu, F., Cai, Z., Buchtel, E. E., & Guan, Y. (2019). Career construction in social exchange: A dual-path model linking career adaptability to turnover intention. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 112, 282–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.04.003
Zimmerman, R. D., Swider, B. W., Woo, S. E., & Allen, D. G. (2016). Who withdraws? Psychological individual differences and employee withdrawal behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(4), 498–519. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000068