Who Stands to Blame? Digital Platforms as Enablers of Insidious Acts
Main Article Content
Abstract
Objective: Understand how digital platforms can be used to render insidious acts, and what roles each actor plays within such ecosystem. Methods: We conducted a non-participant observation of 32 videos and thousands of comments on the YouTube platform on the context of digital predation of minors. Data were codified through thematic analysis. Results: We ended up unraveling six major enablers — i.e., (1) frailty, (2) burdening, (3) ineffective oversight, (4) unaccountability, (5) sense of impunity, and (6) digital naivety, at three levels: organizational, institutional, and individual. Conclusions: This research complements the theory of the digital platforms ecosystem by framing the ‘dark’ side of interactions and illustrating six building blocks that surround the insidious acts occurring within social media platforms. The proposed framework helps us understand how each of these actors facilitates the occurrence of insidious acts through the so-called enablers. Practical and social contributions were also provided.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
Article Details
How to Cite
Freischlag, B. L. A., & Bittencourt, B. A. (2024). Who Stands to Blame? Digital Platforms as Enablers of Insidious Acts. Brazilian Administration Review, 21(4), e230124. https://doi.org/10.1590/1807-7692bar2024230124
Section
Research Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Baccarella, C. V., Wagner, T. F., Kietzmann, J. H., & McCarthy, I. P. (2018). Social media? It’s serious! Understanding the dark side of social media. European Management Journal, 36(4), 431-438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2018.07.002
Bantourakis, M., & Manojlovic, M. (2023). Why data is key to protecting kids online and ensuring the digital future we deserve. https://www.weforum. org/agenda/2023/03/why-data-is-key-to-safeguarding-children-online-andensuring- the-digital-future-we-deserve/#:~:text=Currently%2C%20there%20 is%20limited%20understanding,recognize%20and%20report%20online%20 abuse
Berger, I. (2012). YouTube as a source of data. The British Psychological Society, 83. https://doi.org/10.53841/bpspag.2012.1.83.9
Bjelajac, Ž. (2020). Phenomenological and etiological attributes of pedophilia. Kultura Polisa, 17(1), 11-28. https://kpolisa.com/index.php/kp/article/view/253
Bjelajac, Ž., & Filipovic, A. M. (2022). Profiling of online pedophiles. Law Theory & Prac., 39, 30. https://doi.org/10.5937/ptp2204030B
Bonina, C., Koskinen, K., Eaton, B., & Gawer, A. (2021). Digital platforms for development: Foundations and research agenda. Information Systems Journal, 31(6), 869-902. https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12326
Brannon, V. C., & Holmes, E. N. (2024). Section 230: An overview. Congressional Research Service. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46751
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Butler, J. (2023). AI tools could be used by predators to ‘automate child grooming’, eSafety commissioner warns. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/may/20/ai-tools-could-be-used-by-predators-to-automatechild- grooming-esafety-commissioner-warns
Cassell, J., & Cramer, M. (2008). High tech or high risk: Moral panics about girls online. MacArthur Foundation Digital Media and Learning Initiative.
Chan, E. J., McNiel, D. E., & Binder, R. L. (2016). Sex offenders in the digital age. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online, 44(3), 368- 375. https://jaapl.org/content/44/3/368
Chang, Q., Xing, J., Chang, R., Ip, P., Fong, D. Y. T., Fan, S., Ho, R. T. H., & Yip, P. S. (2021). Online sexual exposure, cyberbullying victimization and suicidal ideation among Hong Kong adolescents: Moderating effects of gender and sexual orientation. Psychiatry Research Communications, 1(2), 100003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psycom.2021.100003
Clevenger, S. L., Navarro, J. N., & Gilliam, M. (2018). Technology and the endless “cat and mouse” game: A review of the interpersonal cybervictimization literature. Sociology Compass, 12(12), e12639. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12639
Custers, B. (2012). Technology in policing: Experiences, obstacles and police needs. Computer law & security review, 28(1), 62-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2011.11.009
Darbinyan, R. (2022). The growing role of ai in content moderation. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2022/06/14/the-growingrole-of-ai-in-content-moderation/?sh=42874c064a17
Dekker, R., van den Brink, P., & Meijer, A. (2020). Social media adoption in the police: Barriers and strategies. Government Information Quarterly, 37(2), 101441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2019.101441
De Reuver, M., Sørensen, C., & Basole, R. C. (2018). The digital platform: A research agenda. Journal of Information Technology, 33(2), 124-135. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41265-016-0033-3
Dupnack, J. (2021). How police catch child porn creeps - and the support available for the victims. https://www.fox2detroit.com/news/how-police-catchchild- porn-creeps-and-the-support-available-for-the-victims
Elia, G., Margherita, A., & Passiante, G. (2020). Digital entrepreneurship ecosystem: How digital technologies and collective intelligence are reshaping the entrepreneurial process. Technological forecasting and social change, 150, 119791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119791
Eisenstat, Y. (2021). How to hold social media accountable for undermining democracy. https://hbr.org/2021/01/how-to-hold-social-media-accountablefor-undermining-democracy
Fatih, T., & Bekir, C. (2015). Police use of technology to fight against crime. European Scientific Journal, 11(10). https://www.eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/5426
Furman, A. (2022). Attorneys say products liability is emerging as a key tool in fight to hold social media companies accountable. https://www.law.com/ legaltechnews/2022/07/14/attorneys-say-products-liability-is-emerging-asa- key-tool-in-fight-to-hold-social-media-companies-accountable/?slretu rn=20230612105127
Gawer, A., & Cusumano, M. A. (2014). Industry platforms and ecosystem innovation. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 31(3), 417-433. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpim.12105
Gillespie, T. (2020). Content moderation, AI, and the question of scale. Big Data & Society, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951720943234
Grigore, G., Molesworth, M., Miles, C., & Glozer, S. (2021). (Un) resolving digital technology paradoxes through the rhetoric of balance. Organization, 28(1), 186-207.
Hayes, A. (2023). YouTube stats: Everything you need to know in 2023!. https://www.wyzowl.com/youtube-stats/#:~:text=There%20are%20at%20 least%20800,content%20is%20being%20uploaded%20constantly
Hein, A., Schreieck, M., Riasanow, T., Setzke, D. S., Wiesche, M., Böhm, M., & Krcmar, H. (2020). Digital platform ecosystems. Electronic Markets, 30, 87-98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-019-00377-4
Hine, C. (2008). Virtual ethnography: Modes, varieties, affordances. In N. G. Fielding, R. M. Lee, & G. Blank, Handbook of Online Research Methods (pp. 257-270). Sage.
Internet Watch Foundation. (2023). IWF Annual Report 2022. https://www.iwf.org.uk/about-us/who-we-are/annual-report-2022/
Kietzmann, J. H., Hermkens, K., McCarthy, I. P., & Silvestre, B. S. (2011). Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media. Business Horizons, 54(3), 241-251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2011.01.005
Klemko, R. (2023). Police agencies are desperate to hire. But they say few want the job. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/nationalsecurity/ 2023/05/27/police-vacancies-hiring-recruiting-reform/ Koskinen, K., Bonina, C., & Eaton, B. (2019). Digital platforms in the global south: Foundations and research agenda. In Information and Communication Technologies for Development. Strengthening Southern-Driven Cooperation as a Catalyst for ICT4D: 15th IFIP WG 9.4 International Conference on Social Implications of Computers in Developing Countries, 15, 319-330.
Li, W., Badr, Y., & Biennier, F. (2012). Digital ecosystems: Challenges and prospects. In Proceedings of The International Conference on Management of Emergent Digital EcoSystem, pp. 117-122. https://doi.org/10.1145/2457276.2457297
Liu, F., & Maitlis, S. (2010). Non-participant observation. In. A. J. Mills, E. Wiebe, & G. Durepos (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Case Study Research. (pp. 609-611). SAGE.
Loffhagen, A. (2023). Goodbye Omegle: How the anonymous chatroom traumatized our teen years. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/ media/2023/nov/15/omegle-closing-random-video-chat
Lopez-Rocha, S. (2010). Nethnography in context: Methodological and practical implications of virtual ethnography. International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.18848/1833-1882/CGP/v05i04/51693
Matthews-El, T. (2023). Product Liability.
Lawsuit Guide (2023). https://www.forbes.com/advisor/legal/personal-injury/productliability-lawsuit/#:~:text=Product%20liability%20refers%20to%20responsibility,designed%2C%20manufactured%2C%20or%20marketed
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. John Wiley & Sons.
Miller, A. (2018). Purdue team using artificial intelligence to catch online predators. https://www.purdue.edu/dawnordoom/news/News%202018/180810-Online-Predators.html
Mitchell, K. J., Jones, L. M., Finkelhor, D., & Wolak, J. (2011). Internet-facilitated commercial sexual exploitation of children: Findings from a nationally representative sample of law enforcement agencies in the United States. Sexual Abuse, 23(1), 43-71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063210374347
Müller, K., & Schwarz, C. (2021). Fanning the flames of hate: Social media and hate crime. Journal of the European Economic Association, 19(4), 2131-2167. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeea/jvaa045
Müller, K., & Schwarz, C. (2023). From hashtag to hate crime: Twitter and antiminority sentiment. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 15(3), 270-312. http://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3149103
Negreiro, M. (2023). Combating child sexual abuse online. European Parliament. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2022/738224/EPRS_ BRI(2022)738224_EN.pdf
Nikolovska, H. (2023). Online Predator Statistics [2023 Update]. https://screenandreveal.com/online-predators-statistics/
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2019). Going digital: Shaping policies, improving lives. https://www.oecd.org/digital/going-digital-synthesis-summary.pdf
Ortutay, B. (2023). What you should know about Section 230, the rule that shaped today’s internet. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/what-youshould- know-about-section-230-the-rule-that-shaped-todays-internet PBS NewsHour. (2018). How the FBI tracks down child pornography predators. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/how-the-fbi-tracks-down-childpornography-predators
Quayyum, F., Cruzes, D. S., & Jaccheri, L. (2021). Cybersecurity awareness for children: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 30, 100343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcci.2021.100343
Ratwatte, P., & Mattacola, E. (2021). An exploration of ‘fitspiration’content on YouTube and its impacts on consumers. Journal of Health Psychology, 26(6), 935-946. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105319854168
Rochlin, S., Bliss, R., Jordan, S., & Kiser, C. (2015). Defining the competitive and financial advantages of corporate responsibility and sustainability. IO Sustainability. https://www.ywcasandiego.org/wp-content/uploads/Project- ROI-Report-Impact-ROI.pdf
Rossotto, C. M., Lal Das, P., Gasol Ramos, E., Clemente Miranda, E., Badran, M. F., Martinez Licetti, M., & Miralles Murciego, G. (2018). Digital platforms: A literature review and policy implications for development. Competition and Regulation in Network Industries, 19(1-2), 93-109. https://doi.org/10.1177/1783591718809485
SBS Dateline. (2019, March 17). Digital Predators | Full Episode | Dateline [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RnKlo0EjAqc&t=1s
SBS Dataline. (2023, July 16). The UK’s fight against child sexual abuse online | SBS Dateline [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iF75rooxoB0&t=2s
Sedera, D., Lokuge, S., Grover, V., Sarker, S., & Sarker, S. (2016). Innovating with enterprise systems and digital platforms: A contingent resourcebased theory view. Information & Management, 53(3), 366-379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2016.01.00
Seto, M. C., Karl Hanson, R., & Babchishin, K. M. (2011). Contact sexual offending by men with online sexual offenses. Sexual Abuse, 23(1), 124-145. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063210369013
Solon, O. (2020). Inside the surveillance software tracking child porn offenders across the globe. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/internet/inside-surveillancesoftware-tracking-child-porn-offenders-across-globe-n1234019 Spradley, J. P. (1980). Doing participant observation. In J. P Spradley (Ed.), Participant observation (pp. 53-84).
Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Stackpole, T. (2022). Content moderation is terrible by design. A conversation about how to fix the front lines of the internet. https://hbr.org/2022/11/content-moderation-is-terrible-by-design Stop it Now. (n.d.). The stop it now! UK and Ireland helpline. https://www.stopitnow.org.uk/helpline/
Sui, W., Sui, A., & Rhodes, R. E. (2022). What to watch: Practical considerations and strategies for using YouTube for research. Digital Health, 8, 20552076221123707. https://doi.org/10.1177/20552076221123707
Sussan, F., & Acs, Z. J. (2017). The digital entrepreneurial ecosystem. Small Business Economics, 49, 55-73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-017-9867-5
Tiwana, A., Konsynski, B., & Bush, A. A. (2010). Research commentary— Platform evolution: Coevolution of platform architecture, governance, and environmental dynamics. Information Systems Research, 21(4), 675-687. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.1100.0323
Tomaz, T. (2023). Brazilian fake news bill: Strong content moderation accountability but limited hold on platform market power. Javnost-The Public, 30(2), 253-267. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2023.2201801
Trittin-Ulbrich, H., Scherer, A. G., Munro, I., & Whelan, G. (2021). Exploring the dark and unexpected sides of digitalization: Toward a critical agenda. Organization, 28(1), 8-25. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350508420968184 Udupa, S., Maronikolakis, A., & Wisiorek, A. (2023). Ethical scaling for content moderation: Extreme speech and the (in) significance of artificial intelligence. Big Data & Society, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517231172424
United Nations. (2023). Freedom of speech is not freedom to spread racial hatred on social media: UN experts. https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2023/01/ freedom-speech-not-freedom-spread-racial-hatred-social-media-un-experts
Vice. (2022). Catching Pedophiles Using AI. VICE Video. https://video.vice.com/ en_uk/video/catching-pedophiles-using-ai/61841b788b2e171ec133e54b?late st=1
Whelan, G. (2019). Born political: A dispositive analysis of Google and copyright. Business & Society, 58(1), 42-73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0007650317717701
Whelan, G., Moon, J., & Grant, B. (2013). Corporations and citizenship arenas in the age of social media. Journal of Business Ethics, 118, 777-790. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1960-3
Witmer, D. (2022). Why teens need privacy from their parents. https://www.verywellfamily.com/why-does-my-teen-need-privacy-2609615
Wolak, J., Finkelhor, D., & Mitchell, K. J. (2005). Child-pornography possessors arrested in internet-related crimes: Findings from the national juvenile online victimization study. National Center for Missing & Exploited Children. Alexandria, VA.
Yang, L. K. (2016). Protecting youth from dangerous media: Online predators. In R. Levesque (Ed.), Adolescents, rapid social change, and the law: The transforming nature of protection (pp. 75-92). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-41535-2_4
Zuboff, S. (2015). Big other: Surveillance capitalism and the prospects of an information civilization. Journal of information technology, 30(1), 75-89. https://doi.org/10.1057/jit.2015.5
Bantourakis, M., & Manojlovic, M. (2023). Why data is key to protecting kids online and ensuring the digital future we deserve. https://www.weforum. org/agenda/2023/03/why-data-is-key-to-safeguarding-children-online-andensuring- the-digital-future-we-deserve/#:~:text=Currently%2C%20there%20 is%20limited%20understanding,recognize%20and%20report%20online%20 abuse
Berger, I. (2012). YouTube as a source of data. The British Psychological Society, 83. https://doi.org/10.53841/bpspag.2012.1.83.9
Bjelajac, Ž. (2020). Phenomenological and etiological attributes of pedophilia. Kultura Polisa, 17(1), 11-28. https://kpolisa.com/index.php/kp/article/view/253
Bjelajac, Ž., & Filipovic, A. M. (2022). Profiling of online pedophiles. Law Theory & Prac., 39, 30. https://doi.org/10.5937/ptp2204030B
Bonina, C., Koskinen, K., Eaton, B., & Gawer, A. (2021). Digital platforms for development: Foundations and research agenda. Information Systems Journal, 31(6), 869-902. https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12326
Brannon, V. C., & Holmes, E. N. (2024). Section 230: An overview. Congressional Research Service. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46751
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Butler, J. (2023). AI tools could be used by predators to ‘automate child grooming’, eSafety commissioner warns. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/may/20/ai-tools-could-be-used-by-predators-to-automatechild- grooming-esafety-commissioner-warns
Cassell, J., & Cramer, M. (2008). High tech or high risk: Moral panics about girls online. MacArthur Foundation Digital Media and Learning Initiative.
Chan, E. J., McNiel, D. E., & Binder, R. L. (2016). Sex offenders in the digital age. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online, 44(3), 368- 375. https://jaapl.org/content/44/3/368
Chang, Q., Xing, J., Chang, R., Ip, P., Fong, D. Y. T., Fan, S., Ho, R. T. H., & Yip, P. S. (2021). Online sexual exposure, cyberbullying victimization and suicidal ideation among Hong Kong adolescents: Moderating effects of gender and sexual orientation. Psychiatry Research Communications, 1(2), 100003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psycom.2021.100003
Clevenger, S. L., Navarro, J. N., & Gilliam, M. (2018). Technology and the endless “cat and mouse” game: A review of the interpersonal cybervictimization literature. Sociology Compass, 12(12), e12639. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12639
Custers, B. (2012). Technology in policing: Experiences, obstacles and police needs. Computer law & security review, 28(1), 62-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2011.11.009
Darbinyan, R. (2022). The growing role of ai in content moderation. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2022/06/14/the-growingrole-of-ai-in-content-moderation/?sh=42874c064a17
Dekker, R., van den Brink, P., & Meijer, A. (2020). Social media adoption in the police: Barriers and strategies. Government Information Quarterly, 37(2), 101441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2019.101441
De Reuver, M., Sørensen, C., & Basole, R. C. (2018). The digital platform: A research agenda. Journal of Information Technology, 33(2), 124-135. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41265-016-0033-3
Dupnack, J. (2021). How police catch child porn creeps - and the support available for the victims. https://www.fox2detroit.com/news/how-police-catchchild- porn-creeps-and-the-support-available-for-the-victims
Elia, G., Margherita, A., & Passiante, G. (2020). Digital entrepreneurship ecosystem: How digital technologies and collective intelligence are reshaping the entrepreneurial process. Technological forecasting and social change, 150, 119791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119791
Eisenstat, Y. (2021). How to hold social media accountable for undermining democracy. https://hbr.org/2021/01/how-to-hold-social-media-accountablefor-undermining-democracy
Fatih, T., & Bekir, C. (2015). Police use of technology to fight against crime. European Scientific Journal, 11(10). https://www.eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/5426
Furman, A. (2022). Attorneys say products liability is emerging as a key tool in fight to hold social media companies accountable. https://www.law.com/ legaltechnews/2022/07/14/attorneys-say-products-liability-is-emerging-asa- key-tool-in-fight-to-hold-social-media-companies-accountable/?slretu rn=20230612105127
Gawer, A., & Cusumano, M. A. (2014). Industry platforms and ecosystem innovation. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 31(3), 417-433. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpim.12105
Gillespie, T. (2020). Content moderation, AI, and the question of scale. Big Data & Society, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951720943234
Grigore, G., Molesworth, M., Miles, C., & Glozer, S. (2021). (Un) resolving digital technology paradoxes through the rhetoric of balance. Organization, 28(1), 186-207.
Hayes, A. (2023). YouTube stats: Everything you need to know in 2023!. https://www.wyzowl.com/youtube-stats/#:~:text=There%20are%20at%20 least%20800,content%20is%20being%20uploaded%20constantly
Hein, A., Schreieck, M., Riasanow, T., Setzke, D. S., Wiesche, M., Böhm, M., & Krcmar, H. (2020). Digital platform ecosystems. Electronic Markets, 30, 87-98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-019-00377-4
Hine, C. (2008). Virtual ethnography: Modes, varieties, affordances. In N. G. Fielding, R. M. Lee, & G. Blank, Handbook of Online Research Methods (pp. 257-270). Sage.
Internet Watch Foundation. (2023). IWF Annual Report 2022. https://www.iwf.org.uk/about-us/who-we-are/annual-report-2022/
Kietzmann, J. H., Hermkens, K., McCarthy, I. P., & Silvestre, B. S. (2011). Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media. Business Horizons, 54(3), 241-251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2011.01.005
Klemko, R. (2023). Police agencies are desperate to hire. But they say few want the job. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/nationalsecurity/ 2023/05/27/police-vacancies-hiring-recruiting-reform/ Koskinen, K., Bonina, C., & Eaton, B. (2019). Digital platforms in the global south: Foundations and research agenda. In Information and Communication Technologies for Development. Strengthening Southern-Driven Cooperation as a Catalyst for ICT4D: 15th IFIP WG 9.4 International Conference on Social Implications of Computers in Developing Countries, 15, 319-330.
Li, W., Badr, Y., & Biennier, F. (2012). Digital ecosystems: Challenges and prospects. In Proceedings of The International Conference on Management of Emergent Digital EcoSystem, pp. 117-122. https://doi.org/10.1145/2457276.2457297
Liu, F., & Maitlis, S. (2010). Non-participant observation. In. A. J. Mills, E. Wiebe, & G. Durepos (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Case Study Research. (pp. 609-611). SAGE.
Loffhagen, A. (2023). Goodbye Omegle: How the anonymous chatroom traumatized our teen years. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/ media/2023/nov/15/omegle-closing-random-video-chat
Lopez-Rocha, S. (2010). Nethnography in context: Methodological and practical implications of virtual ethnography. International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.18848/1833-1882/CGP/v05i04/51693
Matthews-El, T. (2023). Product Liability.
Lawsuit Guide (2023). https://www.forbes.com/advisor/legal/personal-injury/productliability-lawsuit/#:~:text=Product%20liability%20refers%20to%20responsibility,designed%2C%20manufactured%2C%20or%20marketed
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. John Wiley & Sons.
Miller, A. (2018). Purdue team using artificial intelligence to catch online predators. https://www.purdue.edu/dawnordoom/news/News%202018/180810-Online-Predators.html
Mitchell, K. J., Jones, L. M., Finkelhor, D., & Wolak, J. (2011). Internet-facilitated commercial sexual exploitation of children: Findings from a nationally representative sample of law enforcement agencies in the United States. Sexual Abuse, 23(1), 43-71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063210374347
Müller, K., & Schwarz, C. (2021). Fanning the flames of hate: Social media and hate crime. Journal of the European Economic Association, 19(4), 2131-2167. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeea/jvaa045
Müller, K., & Schwarz, C. (2023). From hashtag to hate crime: Twitter and antiminority sentiment. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 15(3), 270-312. http://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3149103
Negreiro, M. (2023). Combating child sexual abuse online. European Parliament. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2022/738224/EPRS_ BRI(2022)738224_EN.pdf
Nikolovska, H. (2023). Online Predator Statistics [2023 Update]. https://screenandreveal.com/online-predators-statistics/
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2019). Going digital: Shaping policies, improving lives. https://www.oecd.org/digital/going-digital-synthesis-summary.pdf
Ortutay, B. (2023). What you should know about Section 230, the rule that shaped today’s internet. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/what-youshould- know-about-section-230-the-rule-that-shaped-todays-internet PBS NewsHour. (2018). How the FBI tracks down child pornography predators. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/how-the-fbi-tracks-down-childpornography-predators
Quayyum, F., Cruzes, D. S., & Jaccheri, L. (2021). Cybersecurity awareness for children: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 30, 100343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcci.2021.100343
Ratwatte, P., & Mattacola, E. (2021). An exploration of ‘fitspiration’content on YouTube and its impacts on consumers. Journal of Health Psychology, 26(6), 935-946. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105319854168
Rochlin, S., Bliss, R., Jordan, S., & Kiser, C. (2015). Defining the competitive and financial advantages of corporate responsibility and sustainability. IO Sustainability. https://www.ywcasandiego.org/wp-content/uploads/Project- ROI-Report-Impact-ROI.pdf
Rossotto, C. M., Lal Das, P., Gasol Ramos, E., Clemente Miranda, E., Badran, M. F., Martinez Licetti, M., & Miralles Murciego, G. (2018). Digital platforms: A literature review and policy implications for development. Competition and Regulation in Network Industries, 19(1-2), 93-109. https://doi.org/10.1177/1783591718809485
SBS Dateline. (2019, March 17). Digital Predators | Full Episode | Dateline [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RnKlo0EjAqc&t=1s
SBS Dataline. (2023, July 16). The UK’s fight against child sexual abuse online | SBS Dateline [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iF75rooxoB0&t=2s
Sedera, D., Lokuge, S., Grover, V., Sarker, S., & Sarker, S. (2016). Innovating with enterprise systems and digital platforms: A contingent resourcebased theory view. Information & Management, 53(3), 366-379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2016.01.00
Seto, M. C., Karl Hanson, R., & Babchishin, K. M. (2011). Contact sexual offending by men with online sexual offenses. Sexual Abuse, 23(1), 124-145. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063210369013
Solon, O. (2020). Inside the surveillance software tracking child porn offenders across the globe. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/internet/inside-surveillancesoftware-tracking-child-porn-offenders-across-globe-n1234019 Spradley, J. P. (1980). Doing participant observation. In J. P Spradley (Ed.), Participant observation (pp. 53-84).
Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Stackpole, T. (2022). Content moderation is terrible by design. A conversation about how to fix the front lines of the internet. https://hbr.org/2022/11/content-moderation-is-terrible-by-design Stop it Now. (n.d.). The stop it now! UK and Ireland helpline. https://www.stopitnow.org.uk/helpline/
Sui, W., Sui, A., & Rhodes, R. E. (2022). What to watch: Practical considerations and strategies for using YouTube for research. Digital Health, 8, 20552076221123707. https://doi.org/10.1177/20552076221123707
Sussan, F., & Acs, Z. J. (2017). The digital entrepreneurial ecosystem. Small Business Economics, 49, 55-73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-017-9867-5
Tiwana, A., Konsynski, B., & Bush, A. A. (2010). Research commentary— Platform evolution: Coevolution of platform architecture, governance, and environmental dynamics. Information Systems Research, 21(4), 675-687. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.1100.0323
Tomaz, T. (2023). Brazilian fake news bill: Strong content moderation accountability but limited hold on platform market power. Javnost-The Public, 30(2), 253-267. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2023.2201801
Trittin-Ulbrich, H., Scherer, A. G., Munro, I., & Whelan, G. (2021). Exploring the dark and unexpected sides of digitalization: Toward a critical agenda. Organization, 28(1), 8-25. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350508420968184 Udupa, S., Maronikolakis, A., & Wisiorek, A. (2023). Ethical scaling for content moderation: Extreme speech and the (in) significance of artificial intelligence. Big Data & Society, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517231172424
United Nations. (2023). Freedom of speech is not freedom to spread racial hatred on social media: UN experts. https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2023/01/ freedom-speech-not-freedom-spread-racial-hatred-social-media-un-experts
Vice. (2022). Catching Pedophiles Using AI. VICE Video. https://video.vice.com/ en_uk/video/catching-pedophiles-using-ai/61841b788b2e171ec133e54b?late st=1
Whelan, G. (2019). Born political: A dispositive analysis of Google and copyright. Business & Society, 58(1), 42-73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0007650317717701
Whelan, G., Moon, J., & Grant, B. (2013). Corporations and citizenship arenas in the age of social media. Journal of Business Ethics, 118, 777-790. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1960-3
Witmer, D. (2022). Why teens need privacy from their parents. https://www.verywellfamily.com/why-does-my-teen-need-privacy-2609615
Wolak, J., Finkelhor, D., & Mitchell, K. J. (2005). Child-pornography possessors arrested in internet-related crimes: Findings from the national juvenile online victimization study. National Center for Missing & Exploited Children. Alexandria, VA.
Yang, L. K. (2016). Protecting youth from dangerous media: Online predators. In R. Levesque (Ed.), Adolescents, rapid social change, and the law: The transforming nature of protection (pp. 75-92). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-41535-2_4
Zuboff, S. (2015). Big other: Surveillance capitalism and the prospects of an information civilization. Journal of information technology, 30(1), 75-89. https://doi.org/10.1057/jit.2015.5