When Stock Disappears, Psychology Appears: The Moderating Effect of the Regulatory Focus on Consumer Reactions to Out-of-Stock
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Abstract
Objective: this study investigates the moderating effect of consumers’ regulatory focus (promotion vs. prevention) on their reactions to out-of-stock (OOS) situations in retail environments. The objective is to understand how different regulatory profiles influence purchase intention when products are unavailable. Methods: three experimental studies were conducted. In the first study, we explored how consumers’ regulatory focus affects purchase intention in OOS scenarios. The second study manipulated participants’ regulatory focus to analyze its effect on product unavailability. The third study used eye-tracking technology to examine how regulatory focus influences visual attention in OOS contexts. Results: results show that promotion-focused consumers exhibit greater resilience, maintaining stable purchase intentions, while prevention-focused consumers demonstrate negative reactions, focusing more on empty spaces. Conclusions: these findings suggest that retailers can tailor marketing and inventory management strategies based on consumers’ regulatory profiles to mitigate the negative effects of OOS situations. This study contributes to the literature by integrating regulatory focus theory with consumer responses to stockouts and offers practical insights for retail managers.
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Lopes, E. L., Mesquita, E., & Herrero, E. (2025). When Stock Disappears, Psychology Appears: The Moderating Effect of the Regulatory Focus on Consumer Reactions to Out-of-Stock. Brazilian Administration Review, 22(3), e24180. https://doi.org/10.1590/1807-7692bar2025240180
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Research Articles
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References
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Atalay, A. S., Bodur, H. O., & Rasolofoarison, D. (2012). Shining in the center: Central gaze cascade effect on product choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(4), 848-866. https://doi.org/10.1086/665984
Barton, B., Zlatevska, N., & Oppewal, H. (2022). Scarcity tactics in marketing: A meta-analysis of product scarcity effects on consumer purchase intentions. Journal of Retailing, 98(4), 741-758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2022.06.003
Benrqya, Y. (2021). An examination of the effects of cross-docking on retail out of stock. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 49(5), 636-651. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJRDM-06-2020-0216
Chammas, C. B., & Hernandez, J. M. C. (2024) Development and validation of the general regulatory focus measure forced choice scale (GRFM-FC). Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05970-1
Chandon, P., Hutchinson, J. W., Bradlow, E. T., & Young, S. H. (2009). Does in-store marketing work? Effects of the number and position of shelf facings on brand attention and evaluation at the point of purchase. Journal of Marketing, 73(6), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.73.6.1
Christy, A., Gandhi, G. M., & Vaithyasubramanian, S. (2015). Cluster based outlier detection algorithm for healthcare data. Procedia Computer Science, 50, 209-215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2015.04.058
Che, H., Chen, X., & Chen, Y. (2012). Investigating effects of out-of-stock on consumer stockkeeping unit choice. Journal of Marketing Research, 49(4), 502-513. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.09.0528
Derryberry, D., & Reed, M. A. (1998). Anxiety and attentional focusing: Trait, state and hemispheric influences. Personality and individual differences, 25(4), 745-761. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00117-2
Fatimah, S., Lee, H. W., Ferris, D. L., & Young, H. R. (2024). A regulatory focus theory perspective on the dynamics between action and power. Journal of Applied Psychology, 109(9), 1397-1407. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0001198
Fitzsimons, G. J. (2000). Consumer response to stockouts. Journal of Consumer Research, 27(2), 249-266. https://doi.org/10.1086/314323
Fisher, G. (2021). Intertemporal choices are causally influenced by fluctuations in visual attention. Management Science, 67(8), 4961-4981. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2020.3732
Friedman, E., Johnson, S., & Mitton, T. (2003). Propping and tunneling. Journal of Comparative Economics, 31(4), 732-750.
Förster, J., & Higgins, E. T. (2005). How global versus local perception fits regulatory focus. Psychological Science, 16(8), 631-636. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01586.x
Förster, J., Friedman, R. S., Özelsel, A., & Denzler, M. (2006). Enactment of approach and avoidance behavior influences the scope of perceptual and conceptual attention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(2), 133-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.02.004
Grubor, A., Milicevic, N., & Djokic, N. (2017). The impact of store satisfaction on consumer responses in out-of-stock situations. Revista Brasileira de Gestão de Negócios, 19, 520-537. https://doi.org/10.7819/rbgn.v0i0.2436
Hayes, A. F., & Montoya, A. K. (2017). A tutorial on testing, visualizing, and probing an interaction involving a multicategorical variable in linear regression analysis. Communication Methods and Measures, 11(1), 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2016.1271116
He, Y., & Oppewal, H. (2018). See how much we’ve sold already! Effects of displaying sales and stock level information on consumers’ online product choices. Journal of Retailing, 94(1), 45-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2017.10.002
Hernandez, J. M., Basso, K., & Brandão, M. M. (2014). Pesquisa experimental em marketing. Revista Brasileira de Marketing, 13(2), 98-117. http://dx.doi.org/10.5585/remark.v13i2.2692
Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: strength of regulatory focus as moderator. Journal of personality and social psychology, 72(3), 515-525. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.72.3.515
Higgins, E. T. (2012). Regulatory focus theory. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology (pp. 483-504). Sage. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.4135/9781446249215.n24
Hoang, D., & Breugelmans, E. (2023). “Sorry, the product you ordered is out of stock”: Effects of substitution policy in online grocery retailing. Journal of Retailing, 99(1), 26-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2022.06.006
Huang, Y., & Zhang, Y. C. (2016). The out-of-stock (OOS) effect on choice shares of available options. Journal of Retailing, 92(1), 13-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2015.07.001
Hüttermann, S., & Memmert, D. (2015). The influence of motivational and mood states on visual attention: A quantification of systematic differences and casual changes in subjects’ focus of attention. Cognition and Emotion, 29(3), 471-483. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2014.920767
Hüttermann, S., Memmert, D., & Nerb, J. (2019). Individual differences in attentional capability are linked to creative decision making. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 49(3), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12572
Isaacowitz, D. M., Wadlinger, H. A., Goren, D., & Wilson, H. R. (2006). Is there an age-related positivity effect in visual attention? A comparison of two methodologies. Emotion, 6(3), 511-516. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.6.3.511
Jing, X., & Lewis, M. (2011). Stockouts in online retailing. Journal of Marketing Research, 48(2), 342-354. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.48.2.342
Kalantary, M. R., Hejazi, S. R., & Khosroshahi, H. (2023). Pricing for different return policies in an online marketplace considering appeasement during a post-return out-of-stock. International Journal of Production Economics, 266, 109039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2023.109039
Ku, H. H., Kuo, C. C., & Kuo, T. W. (2012). The effect of scarcity on the purchase intentions of prevention and promotion motivated consumers. Psychology & Marketing, 29(8), 541-548. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20541
Kumar, M. E., Sharma, D. P., & Tapar, A. V. (2021). Out-of-stock justifications and consumers’ behavioral outcomes–exploring the role of product type and sales level information in out-of-stock situations. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 60, 102458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2021.102458
Lastner, M. M., Folse, J. A. G., Mangus, S. M., & Fennell, P. (2016). The road to recovery: Overcoming service failures through positive emotions. Journal of Business Research, 69(10), 4278-4286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.04.002
Lee, A. Y., & Aaker, J. L. (2004). Bringing the frame into focus: The influence of regulatory fit on processing fluency and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 205–218. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.205
Lee, K., Choi, J., & Li, Y. J. (2014). Regulatory focus as a predictor of attitudes toward partitioned and combined pricing. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 24(3), 355-362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2014.01.001
Lichtenthaler, P. W., & Fischbach, A. (2019). A meta-analysis on promotion-and prevention-focused job crafting. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 28(1), 30-50. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/1359432X.2018.1527767
Lopes, E. L., & Herrero, E. (2018) Pull from here and stretch from there: An experimental study on the effects of out-of-stock in retail (p. 1-18). In 8rd EMA - Encontro de Marketing da ANPAD, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil. https://arquivo.anpad.org.br/eventos.php?cod_evento_edicao=92
Lopes, E. L., & Veiga, R. T. (2019). Increasing purchasing intention of eco-efficient products: The role of the advertising communication strategy and the branding strategy. Journal of Brand Management, 26(5), 550-566. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41262-019-00150-0
MacLin, M. K. (2024). Basic Experimental Design in Psychology: The Logic of Experimental Design. In Experimental Design in Psychology (pp. 36-48). Routledge.
Monga, A. S. B., & Williams, J. D. (2016). Cross-cultural styles of thinking and their influence on consumer behavior. Current Opinion in Psychology, 10, 65-69.
Morris, M., & Peng, K. (1994). Culture and causes: American and Chinese attributions for social and physical events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(6), 949-971. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.949
Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., & Norenzayan, A. (2001). Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological review, 108(2), 291-310. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.2.291
Ozuem, W., Patel, A., Howell, K. E., & Lancaster, G. (2017). An exploration of consumers’ response to online service recovery initiatives. International Journal of Market Research, 59(1), 97-115. https://doi.org/10.2501/IJMR-2016-048
Peterson, R. A., Kim, Y., & Jeong, J. (2020). Out‐of‐stock, sold out, or unavailable? Framing a product outage in online retailing. Psychology & marketing, 37(3), 428-440. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21309
Petrou, P., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2018). Crafting the change: The role of employee job crafting behaviors for successful organizational change. Journal of management, 44(5), 1766-1792. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0149206315624961
Pizzi, G., & Scarpi, D. (2013). When out-of-stock products DO backfire: Managing disclosure time and justification wording. Journal of Retailing, 89(3), 352-359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2012.12.003
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Contemporary approaches to assessing mediation in communication research. In A. F. Hayes, M. D., Slater, & L. B. Snyder (Eds.), The Sage sourcebook of advanced data analysis methods for communication research. Sage.
Schary, P. B., & Becker, B. W. (1978). The impact of stock--out on market share: Temporal effects. Journal of Business Logistics, 1(1).
Streicher, M. C., Estes, Z., & Büttner, O. B. (2021). Exploratory shopping: Attention affects in-store exploration and unplanned purchasing. Journal of Consumer Research, 48(1), 51-76. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucaa054
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Experimental designs using ANOVA (Vol. 724). Thomson/Brooks/Cole.
Vriend, T., Hamstra, M. R., Said, R., Janssen, O., Jordan, J., & Nijstad, B. A. (2023). Regulatory focus theory: Disentangling goals and strategies. Applied Psychology, 72(1), 231-267. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12376
Allen, M. S., Iliescu, D., & Greiff, S. (2022). Single item measures in psychological science. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 38(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000699
Andaur, J. M. R., Ruz, G. A., & Goycoolea, M. (2021). Predicting out-of-stock using machine learning: an application in a retail packaged foods manufacturing company. Electronics, 10(22), 2787. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics10222787
Atalay, A. S., Bodur, H. O., & Rasolofoarison, D. (2012). Shining in the center: Central gaze cascade effect on product choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(4), 848-866. https://doi.org/10.1086/665984
Barton, B., Zlatevska, N., & Oppewal, H. (2022). Scarcity tactics in marketing: A meta-analysis of product scarcity effects on consumer purchase intentions. Journal of Retailing, 98(4), 741-758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2022.06.003
Benrqya, Y. (2021). An examination of the effects of cross-docking on retail out of stock. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 49(5), 636-651. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJRDM-06-2020-0216
Chammas, C. B., & Hernandez, J. M. C. (2024) Development and validation of the general regulatory focus measure forced choice scale (GRFM-FC). Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05970-1
Chandon, P., Hutchinson, J. W., Bradlow, E. T., & Young, S. H. (2009). Does in-store marketing work? Effects of the number and position of shelf facings on brand attention and evaluation at the point of purchase. Journal of Marketing, 73(6), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.73.6.1
Christy, A., Gandhi, G. M., & Vaithyasubramanian, S. (2015). Cluster based outlier detection algorithm for healthcare data. Procedia Computer Science, 50, 209-215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2015.04.058
Che, H., Chen, X., & Chen, Y. (2012). Investigating effects of out-of-stock on consumer stockkeeping unit choice. Journal of Marketing Research, 49(4), 502-513. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.09.0528
Derryberry, D., & Reed, M. A. (1998). Anxiety and attentional focusing: Trait, state and hemispheric influences. Personality and individual differences, 25(4), 745-761. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00117-2
Fatimah, S., Lee, H. W., Ferris, D. L., & Young, H. R. (2024). A regulatory focus theory perspective on the dynamics between action and power. Journal of Applied Psychology, 109(9), 1397-1407. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0001198
Fitzsimons, G. J. (2000). Consumer response to stockouts. Journal of Consumer Research, 27(2), 249-266. https://doi.org/10.1086/314323
Fisher, G. (2021). Intertemporal choices are causally influenced by fluctuations in visual attention. Management Science, 67(8), 4961-4981. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2020.3732
Friedman, E., Johnson, S., & Mitton, T. (2003). Propping and tunneling. Journal of Comparative Economics, 31(4), 732-750.
Förster, J., & Higgins, E. T. (2005). How global versus local perception fits regulatory focus. Psychological Science, 16(8), 631-636. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01586.x
Förster, J., Friedman, R. S., Özelsel, A., & Denzler, M. (2006). Enactment of approach and avoidance behavior influences the scope of perceptual and conceptual attention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(2), 133-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.02.004
Grubor, A., Milicevic, N., & Djokic, N. (2017). The impact of store satisfaction on consumer responses in out-of-stock situations. Revista Brasileira de Gestão de Negócios, 19, 520-537. https://doi.org/10.7819/rbgn.v0i0.2436
Hayes, A. F., & Montoya, A. K. (2017). A tutorial on testing, visualizing, and probing an interaction involving a multicategorical variable in linear regression analysis. Communication Methods and Measures, 11(1), 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2016.1271116
He, Y., & Oppewal, H. (2018). See how much we’ve sold already! Effects of displaying sales and stock level information on consumers’ online product choices. Journal of Retailing, 94(1), 45-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2017.10.002
Hernandez, J. M., Basso, K., & Brandão, M. M. (2014). Pesquisa experimental em marketing. Revista Brasileira de Marketing, 13(2), 98-117. http://dx.doi.org/10.5585/remark.v13i2.2692
Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: strength of regulatory focus as moderator. Journal of personality and social psychology, 72(3), 515-525. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.72.3.515
Higgins, E. T. (2012). Regulatory focus theory. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology (pp. 483-504). Sage. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.4135/9781446249215.n24
Hoang, D., & Breugelmans, E. (2023). “Sorry, the product you ordered is out of stock”: Effects of substitution policy in online grocery retailing. Journal of Retailing, 99(1), 26-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2022.06.006
Huang, Y., & Zhang, Y. C. (2016). The out-of-stock (OOS) effect on choice shares of available options. Journal of Retailing, 92(1), 13-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2015.07.001
Hüttermann, S., & Memmert, D. (2015). The influence of motivational and mood states on visual attention: A quantification of systematic differences and casual changes in subjects’ focus of attention. Cognition and Emotion, 29(3), 471-483. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2014.920767
Hüttermann, S., Memmert, D., & Nerb, J. (2019). Individual differences in attentional capability are linked to creative decision making. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 49(3), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12572
Isaacowitz, D. M., Wadlinger, H. A., Goren, D., & Wilson, H. R. (2006). Is there an age-related positivity effect in visual attention? A comparison of two methodologies. Emotion, 6(3), 511-516. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.6.3.511
Jing, X., & Lewis, M. (2011). Stockouts in online retailing. Journal of Marketing Research, 48(2), 342-354. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.48.2.342
Kalantary, M. R., Hejazi, S. R., & Khosroshahi, H. (2023). Pricing for different return policies in an online marketplace considering appeasement during a post-return out-of-stock. International Journal of Production Economics, 266, 109039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2023.109039
Ku, H. H., Kuo, C. C., & Kuo, T. W. (2012). The effect of scarcity on the purchase intentions of prevention and promotion motivated consumers. Psychology & Marketing, 29(8), 541-548. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20541
Kumar, M. E., Sharma, D. P., & Tapar, A. V. (2021). Out-of-stock justifications and consumers’ behavioral outcomes–exploring the role of product type and sales level information in out-of-stock situations. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 60, 102458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2021.102458
Lastner, M. M., Folse, J. A. G., Mangus, S. M., & Fennell, P. (2016). The road to recovery: Overcoming service failures through positive emotions. Journal of Business Research, 69(10), 4278-4286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.04.002
Lee, A. Y., & Aaker, J. L. (2004). Bringing the frame into focus: The influence of regulatory fit on processing fluency and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 205–218. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.205
Lee, K., Choi, J., & Li, Y. J. (2014). Regulatory focus as a predictor of attitudes toward partitioned and combined pricing. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 24(3), 355-362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2014.01.001
Lichtenthaler, P. W., & Fischbach, A. (2019). A meta-analysis on promotion-and prevention-focused job crafting. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 28(1), 30-50. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/1359432X.2018.1527767
Lopes, E. L., & Herrero, E. (2018) Pull from here and stretch from there: An experimental study on the effects of out-of-stock in retail (p. 1-18). In 8rd EMA - Encontro de Marketing da ANPAD, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil. https://arquivo.anpad.org.br/eventos.php?cod_evento_edicao=92
Lopes, E. L., & Veiga, R. T. (2019). Increasing purchasing intention of eco-efficient products: The role of the advertising communication strategy and the branding strategy. Journal of Brand Management, 26(5), 550-566. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41262-019-00150-0
MacLin, M. K. (2024). Basic Experimental Design in Psychology: The Logic of Experimental Design. In Experimental Design in Psychology (pp. 36-48). Routledge.
Monga, A. S. B., & Williams, J. D. (2016). Cross-cultural styles of thinking and their influence on consumer behavior. Current Opinion in Psychology, 10, 65-69.
Morris, M., & Peng, K. (1994). Culture and causes: American and Chinese attributions for social and physical events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(6), 949-971. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.949
Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., & Norenzayan, A. (2001). Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological review, 108(2), 291-310. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.2.291
Ozuem, W., Patel, A., Howell, K. E., & Lancaster, G. (2017). An exploration of consumers’ response to online service recovery initiatives. International Journal of Market Research, 59(1), 97-115. https://doi.org/10.2501/IJMR-2016-048
Peterson, R. A., Kim, Y., & Jeong, J. (2020). Out‐of‐stock, sold out, or unavailable? Framing a product outage in online retailing. Psychology & marketing, 37(3), 428-440. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21309
Petrou, P., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2018). Crafting the change: The role of employee job crafting behaviors for successful organizational change. Journal of management, 44(5), 1766-1792. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0149206315624961
Pizzi, G., & Scarpi, D. (2013). When out-of-stock products DO backfire: Managing disclosure time and justification wording. Journal of Retailing, 89(3), 352-359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2012.12.003
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Contemporary approaches to assessing mediation in communication research. In A. F. Hayes, M. D., Slater, & L. B. Snyder (Eds.), The Sage sourcebook of advanced data analysis methods for communication research. Sage.
Schary, P. B., & Becker, B. W. (1978). The impact of stock--out on market share: Temporal effects. Journal of Business Logistics, 1(1).
Streicher, M. C., Estes, Z., & Büttner, O. B. (2021). Exploratory shopping: Attention affects in-store exploration and unplanned purchasing. Journal of Consumer Research, 48(1), 51-76. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucaa054
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Experimental designs using ANOVA (Vol. 724). Thomson/Brooks/Cole.
Vriend, T., Hamstra, M. R., Said, R., Janssen, O., Jordan, J., & Nijstad, B. A. (2023). Regulatory focus theory: Disentangling goals and strategies. Applied Psychology, 72(1), 231-267. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12376